Phytochemistry and Therapeutic Promise of Tinospora cordifolia:
An Integrated Perspective
Shweta Pandey1, Dinesh Jain1, Loveleen Kaur1, Amarendra singh1*
Chandigarh College of Pharmacy, Landran, Mohali, Punjab.
*Corresponding Author E-mail: srsamarendra00@gmail.com
ABSTRACT:
Tinospora cordifolia, an important plant in traditional healing practices, has attracted interest due to its diverse therapeutic applications. This review examines its cultural significance in various traditional medicine systems. The study explores Tinospora cordifolias ability to adapt to different environments and its contribution to sustainable ecosystems, along with its chemical composition, which includes alkaloids, diterpenoids, phenolics, and polysaccharides. This review thoroughly examines its pharmacological activity and highlights recent developments in tissue culture techniques and genetic analysis, which play an important role in preserving genetic diversity and enhancing the synthesis of secondary metabolites.
KEYWORDS: Ethnopharmacology, Phytoconstituents, Pharmacology, Tinospora cordifolia.
1. INTRODUCTION:
Ayurvedic, Unani, Siddha, and Homeopathy (AYUSH) are traditional systems of medicine that have gained wide practice. Tinospora cordifolia is a woody climbing shrub commercially available in India, China, Africa, etc.1 Tinospora cordifolia is a widely used shrub in the Ayurvedic system of medicine all over India. Nearly all its parts possess medicinal value and are used in traditional systems of medicine, but the most vital parts used medicinally are the leaves, stem, and roots. Tinospora cordifolia is a rich source of medicinal compounds and is used for multiple purposes.2 According to the estimation of the WHO, 80% of people worldwide depend on herbal medicine as their primary medication3, with about 100 herbal drugs introduced in the United States between 1950 and 1970, followed by notable phytoconstituents and drugs worldwide between 1971 and 1990.4
The healthcare system of the Indian subcontinent is heavily reliant on Complementary and Alternative Medicine (CAM), utilizing India's biodiversity, which includes 7,500 medicinal plant species, 500 of which are commonly used in traditional medicine.5 The production of bioactive compounds is threatened by climate change and environmental stresses, which affect the biodiversity of medicinal plants.6 Documenting indigenous knowledge is essential to preserve plant diversity, as up to 25% of vascular plant species may go extinct within 50 years.7
The WHO estimates that by 2050, there will be a demand for medicinal plants worth more than US $5 trillion, up from $14 billion annually. Many valued plants could eventually go extinct because of overexploitation brought on by the persistently rising demand for therapeutic plants.8
Considering the rich traditional history, varied pharmacological activity, and potential clinical significance, Tinospora cordifolia provides a way to discover innovative therapeutic agents in the face of growing interest in herbal medicine and the pressing need for long-lasting, efficient treatments. One of the most significant herbal plants is Tinospora cordifolia, which is also referred to as "Giloy." It is well known for its extensive utilization in the treatment of various illnesses, including skin conditions, fever, jaundice, and diabetes.9 Nowadays, due to increasing health threats and the various side effects of allopathic drugs, individuals prefer naturally occurring plant-based medicines, which promote the treatment of disease by eliminating its root cause.10
For example, in the recent case of COVID-19, which affected the globe, no effective treatment was initially available to cure the disease. In this scenario, researchers studied various herbal drugs, and Tinospora cordifolia was one of them. In a dynamic approach to identify phytochemical constituents, it was found that major compounds such as berberine (C₂₀H₁₈NO₄), β-sitosterol (C₂₉H₅₀O), Octasanol (C₂₈H₅₈O), and tetrahydropalmatine play a significant role as antiviral agents. These phytochemicals interact with 3CLpro (a key CoV enzyme responsible for replication and transcription of SARS-CoV-2) and inhibit viral replication and transcription.11
2. METHODOLOGY:
To undertake a thorough evaluation of the available research on Tinospora cordifolia, a systematic search was conducted across numerous databases, including PubMed and Google Scholar. Google Scholar offered more comprehensive coverage across a range of fields, ensuring a broad approach to literature retrieval, whereas PubMed was selected for its extensive coverage of biomedical and life science literature. Various terms and phrases pertaining to Tinospora cordifolia were included in the search strategy, such as "Tinospora cordifolia," "Guduchi," "Giloy," "phytochemistry," "pharmacology," and "therapeutic applications." Furthermore, reference lists from relevant publications and reviews were manually searched to identify additional research that might have been overlooked by the computerized searches.
3. Tinospora cardiofolia
Amrita, Guduchi, or Giloy is a significant drug of the Ayurvedic system of medicine, botanically known as Tinospora cordifolia. It belongs to the genus Tinospora of the family Menispermaceae.12 It is a perennial herbaceous plant, commonly found across Bangladesh, India, Thailand, China, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, Borneo, and North Africa.13
Tinospora cordifolia is an important herb in Ayurvedic medicine for the treatment of various diseases such as diabetes, oxidative stress-related conditions, inflammation, malaria, toxicity, hepatic disorders, and immune dysfunction. It is also used to enhance intestinal permeability and for many other therapeutic effects. Its root is used in the treatment of bowel obstruction, while its starch provides a useful remedy for chronic fever and relief from burning sensations. It is also employed to improve digestion, enhance appetite, and reduce acidity, abdominal pain, and excessive thirst. In modern pharmacology, Tinospora cordifolia plays a useful role in the treatment of diseases such as helminthiasis, leprosy, rheumatoid arthritis, and cardiovascular disorders.
The pharmacological actions of Tinospora cordifolia are attributed to the presence of various phytoconstituents, including glycosides, phenolics, diterpenoid lactones, steroids, essential oils, polysaccharides, and mixtures of fatty acids.14,15
Fig 1. Leaves of Tinospora cordifolia
Fig 2. Stems of Tinospora cordifolia
4. Ecological Status: Occurnce and Habitat:
Tinospora cordifolia is an angiosperm and a member of the family Menispermaceae. This herbal plant is a densely branching, twining, deciduous climber, also referred to as heart-leaved moonseed.16 It has simple, alternate, long petioles; its lamina is roughly oval with seven nerves and is deeply cordate at the base.17 It is a glabrous, deciduous, dioecious plant with male and female flowers and a fleshy stem, where the number of petals varies from one to three.18 From the point of view of natural occurrence, Tinospora cordifolia is observed to grow on rocky habitats where the plants are often found in their wild state.19
This plant is very hardy; although it can be cultivated almost everywhere during the rainy season (JulyAugust), it prefers a warm climate. It can be successfully cultivated in all types of soils, though red or black soil is considered preferable for farming purposes.20 It is found in dry forests at altitudes up to 1000 ft, where it grows as a climbing shrub on trees, and is widely distributed in the tropical Indian subcontinent (from Kumaon to Assam), Myanmar, and China at altitudes of about 300 meters, as well as in regions of Sri Lanka.21
5. Ehtanopharmacolgy:
Historically, medicinal plants have been employed in Ayurvedic and traditional medicine across India since ancient times. Tinospora cordifolia is one of the ancient plants used as an herbal drug because it contains various secondary metabolites such as steroids, sesquiterpenoids, glycosides, alkaloids, and phenolics.22 In recent years, researchers interest has largely increased in studying natural immunomodulators for the treatment of immune disorders.
Tinospora species, extensively used in ethnomedicine, are among the most researched medicinal plants for this purpose.23 The ethanol extract of Tinospora cordifolia possesses antiplasmodial efficacy.24 As a potentially useful source for identifying lead compounds for cancer treatment, Tinospora cordifolia has also been investigated for its Chemopreventive ability in diethylnitrosamine (DEN)-induced hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) in rats. Furthermore, Tinospora cordifolia (TC) is recommended in Indian ethnomedicine for treating gout and bone fractures.25
6. Pharmacological Activities:
Tinospora cordifolia, rich in phytoconstituents like alkaloids and diterpenoids, has been extensively studied for its pharmacological activities.26-27 It reduces arthritis symptoms, regulates diabetes via bioactive such as adiponectin, and may influence the metabolism of antidiabetic drugs.28,29,30 Additionally, it shows potential in cancer prevention by modulating neutrophil activity and addressing neurodegenerative as well as psychological disorders.31,32 The major active components of the plant identified include phenylpropanoid glycosides such as Syringin, Cordifolioside A, Cordifolioside B, and the immunostimulant d-glucan. Some of the chemical compounds present in medicinal plants are tannins, alkaloids, carbohydrates, terpenoids, steroids, flavonoids, and phenols.33 Laboratory analyses demonstrate that the plant is used in the treatment of cold, diabetes, rheumatoid arthritis, and fever, and exhibits significant anticancer effects.34
Fig. 3 Therapeutic application of Tinospora cordifolia
6.1 Anti-Diabetic Activity:
Numerous analyses on Tinospora cordifolia have been performed, and its phytochemicals have been extracted, revealing its potential as both a curative and preventive agent for diabetes mellitus.35 Methods such as total phenolic estimation, thin-layer chromatography, and α-amylase inhibition assays have been carried out on various extracts. Among these, the ethyl acetate extract showed the strongest inhibitory action on α-amylase.36 The antidiabetic properties of T. cordifolia are attributed to enhanced glucose uptake in peripheral tissues. It not only increases insulin secretion from pancreatic β-cells but also inhibits phosphorylase activity in the liver.37 Tembatarine, a key constituent, has been identified as a major pathway regulator through neuroactive ligandreceptor interactions.38
The aqueous stem extract improved glucose absorption in 3T3-L1 adipocytes and protected RIN-m5F cells from cytokine-induced damage, thereby aiding glucose metabolism in diabetic rats.39 Extracts such as ethyl acetate, dichloromethane (DCM), chloroform, and hexane demonstrated α-glucosidase inhibitory activity, useful in controlling postprandial glucose spikes. The stem extract also inhibited pancreatic and salivary amylase, further reducing glucose elevation.40
Tinospora cordifolia, widely used in Ayurveda, has thus been thoroughly examined for anti-diabetic activity. Evidence suggests its efficacy through antioxidant and glycemic control mechanisms.41,42 Modern research highlights its role in improving glycemic management and quality of life.⁴³ Network pharmacology studies reveal that Tembatarine interacts with diabetes-related proteins, while pathways such as PI3K and AMPK are involved in the activity of tinosporaside, which enhances glucose uptake in skeletal muscles.44,45
Clinical trials confirm significant reductions in fasting plasma glucose and improved glucose tolerance in both humans and animal models.⁴⁶ Collectively, the evidence underscores its potential as an adjunct or alternative therapy, given its multi-faceted role in improving insulin sensitivity and reducing oxidative stress. With its traditional foundation and growing clinical support, T. cordifolia stands as a valuable botanical resource in diabetes management.
6.2 Immunomodulatory Activity:
The rising interest in wellness and immunity has increased the demand for natural remedies. Immune dysfunction underlies diseases such as cancer, asthma, colitis, arthritis, allergies, and infections.47 Tinospora cordifolia strengthens immunity and mitigates drug-induced toxicity. For instance, when co-administered with cisplatin, it enhances lymphocyte differentiation, triggers a Th1 immune response, and reduces cisplatin toxicity in murine leishmaniasis.48
A novel polysaccharide (RR1) from T. cordifolia was shown to activate lymphocyte subsets and promote Th1 cytokine profiles essential for cell-mediated immunity.49 Similarly, arabinogalactan fractions demonstrated B-cell mitogenic activity without macrophage assistance.50 Ethanolic extracts enhanced humoral antibody response and neutrophil counts even under cyclophosphamide-induced immunosuppression.51
Due to its rich phytochemical composition, T. cordifolia not only regulates immunity but also aids in treating inflammation, cancer, and infections.52 Its neurotherapeutic and anti-inflammatory properties further suggest potential benefits in neurodegenerative diseases.53 Broad-spectrum activities, including antibacterial, anticancer, and anti-diabetic effects, emphasize its versatility.54,55
6.3 Anti-Toxic and Hepatoprotective Activity:
Studies demonstrate that T. cordifolia leaf extracts exhibit strong hepatoprotective and antioxidant effects. In thioacetamide-induced liver damage models, extracts elevated antioxidant enzyme activity and reduced liver injury.⁵⁶ Similarly, in carbon tetrachloride-induced hepatotoxicity, flavonoids and alkaloids reduced serum liver enzymes, validating its use as a liver tonic.57
The plant also counters aflatoxin-induced toxicity, supporting its role in detoxification.58 Overall, T. cordifolia shows broad hepatoprotective and anti-toxic potential, reinforcing its reputation in Ayurveda and offering promising avenues for modern therapeutic application.59
6.4 Anti-Microbial Activity:
T. cordifolia demonstrates broad-spectrum antibacterial and antifungal activity. Butanolic and methanolic extracts were particularly potent against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli.60,61 Silver nanoparticles synthesized with its aqueous and methanolic extracts inhibited Candida albicans and Pseudomonas aeruginosa, further enhancing its antimicrobial efficacy.62
These findings support its traditional use in infections and suggest potential for novel antimicrobial formulations. Its extracts are effective against B. subtilis, P. vulgaris, S. aureus, E. coli, and S. pyogenes, making it a candidate for treating skin and wound infections.63,66
6.5 Anti-Oxidant Activity:
The antioxidant activity of T. cordifolia has been widely documented. Root extracts demonstrated significant antioxidant effects in diabetic models by regulating oxidative stress.⁶⁷ Comparative studies show its superiority to Tinospora sinensis in reducing oxidative damage.68 Methanolic extracts prevented free radical generation and enhanced ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP).69
A review concluded that its extracts exhibit strong antioxidant, antimicrobial, and protein-binding properties, improving cellular health.70 Although patent literature is limited, its benefits in traditional frameworks remain established.71 Extraction studies reveal alcohol and aqueous solvents yield the maximum phytoconstituents.72
6.6 Anti-Inflammatory Activity:
T. cordifolia extracts demonstrated significant activity in carrageenan-induced inflammation tests.73 Chloroform extracts reduced inflammatory biomarkers, supporting their efficacy.74 The plant also stimulates the JAK/STAT pathway, aiding treatment of arthritis and related disorders.75 Decoctions of bark and leaves inhibited protein denaturation, mimicking conventional anti-inflammatory drugs.76
6.7 Anti-Malarial Activity:
Traditionally used for fevers and infections, T. cordifolia has shown promise in malaria treatment.77 Active constituents such as palmatine and magnoflorine target malaria pathways.78 Clinical studies report improvements in malaria symptoms, including splenic enlargement, and support its role as an adjunct to therapies like chloroquine.79
6.8 Antipyretic Activity:
Known as Amrita in Ayurveda, T. cordifolia is a well-established antipyretic. Experimental studies confirmed significant reductions in body temperature in yeast-induced pyrexia models, comparable to paracetamol.80,81 The mechanism involves prostaglandin inhibition, COX pathway modulation, and cytokine suppression.82,83 Clinical trials in children with recurrent fevers also showed symptomatic relief and reduced dependence on synthetic drugs.84,85
6.9 Neuroprotective Activity:
Oxidative stress and inflammation are central to neurodegenerative diseases. T. cordifolia extracts improve cognition and memory in animal models.86 Its alkaloids and diterpenes scavenge ROS, enhance antioxidant enzyme activity, and protect neurons.87 It also suppresses NF-κB, TNF-α, and microglial activation, reducing neuroinflammation.88,89
Clinical studies indicate benefits in age-related memory impairment without adverse effects.90 Its adaptogenic effects further protect neurons from cortisol-induced damage.91 Collectively, these actions suggest strong potential as adjunct therapy in neurodegeneration.
6.10 Cardioprotective Activity:
Cardioprotective potential of T. cordifolia is supported by preclinical evidence in isoproterenol- and doxorubicin-induced cardiotoxicity models.92,93 Its extracts reduced lipid peroxidation, stabilized antioxidant systems, and preserved myocardial integrity. Hypolipidemic activity was observed with reduced total cholesterol, LDL, and triglycerides, and increased HDL.94
Anti-inflammatory actions include reduced TNF-α and IL-6, and smaller infarct sizes in ischemiareperfusion models.95,96 Clinical trials show improved cardiac efficiency, reduced angina, and enhanced exercise tolerance.97
6.11 Anti-Arthritic Activity:
T. cordifolia reduces paw edema, swelling, and cartilage destruction in adjuvant-induced arthritis models.98 Its mechanism involves suppressing NF-κB, COX-2, iNOS, and inflammatory cytokines.99,100 Phytochemicals such as magnoflorine and Cordifolide play roles in these effects.
Clinical trials report improved mobility, reduced stiffness, and lower NSAID dependence in RA patients.101,102 Its dual role in symptom relief and immune modulation makes it a strong integrative option.103
6.12 Nephroprotective Activity:
Extracts protect against cisplatin-, gentamicin-, and lead-induced nephrotoxicity in preclinical studies.104,105 Mechanisms include reduced lipid peroxidation, cytokine inhibition, and antioxidant replenishment.106,107 Clinical studies show improved renal biomarkers in early nephropathy and metabolic syndrome.108,109
These findings highlight T. cordifolia as a promising nephroprotective herb with minimal adverse effects compared to synthetic drugs.
7. Phytochemistry:
T. cordifolia contains diverse phytoconstituents including steroids, alkaloids, polysaccharides, and phenolics. Leaves are rich in calcium, phosphorus, and proteins.110 New compounds such as Tinosporaclerodanol and Tinosporaclerodanoid, along with β-sitosterol, have been isolated from the stem bark.111
In silico studies revealed binding affinity of its phytochemicalsberberine, β-sitosterol, choline, tetrahydropalmatine, and Octasanolto SARS-CoV-2 3CLpro, indicating potential antiviral activity. Berberine emerged as a particularly strong inhibitor.112,113
Crude analysis confirmed the presence of amino acids, phenols, flavonoids, carbohydrates, and tannins.ΉΉ⁴ Methanolic extracts contained high levels of flavonoids and phenolics, with cytotoxic and pharmacological activity in brine shrimp assays. Nutritionally, it is high in crude fibre and low in fat.115
Seasonal variations affect phytochemical levels: phenolic concentration peaks in summer, starch and tannins in winter, and berberine and tinosporaside in monsoon.116 Solvent extraction studies indicate alcohol and aqueous solvents yield the maximum extract across plant parts.117
Table 1. Therapeutic uses, phytochemistry and method used for determination for phytoconstituents of Tinospora cordifolia
|
Therapeutic Uses |
Phytoconstituents |
Methods Used |
References |
|
Anti-diabetic |
Berberine, Tinosporin |
In vivo studies, HPLC examination |
118 |
|
Polysaccharides, Tinocordiside, Palmitine |
Macrophage activation assays, ELISA. |
119, 120 |
|
|
Antioxidant |
Flavonoids (quercetin, luteolin), Phenolics |
DPPH free radical scavenging assay; FRAP assay. |
121 |
|
Hepatoprotective |
Tinosporin, Berberine |
Carbon tetrachloride (CCl4)-induced liver toxicity in animal models; biochemical marker analysis (ALT, AST). |
122 |
|
Antimicrobial |
Alkaloids (magnoflorine, berberine), Tinosporon |
Agar diffusion assay; MIC determination using serial dilution method. EDAX Analysis, XRD, UV visible spectrophotometer |
123 |
|
Cordifolioside A, Steroids (β-sitosterol) |
Carrageenan-induced paw edema test in rats, COX enzyme inhibition assay. |
124 |
|
|
Anti-cancer |
Phenolics, Flavonoids, Terpenoids |
Cytotoxicity assays, cell line studies |
125 |
|
Anti-pyretic |
Tinosporin, Tinosporide |
Brewers yeast-induced pyrexia models in rats, fever-reduction efficacy studies. |
126 |
|
Cardioprotective |
Alkaloids, Flavonoids |
Isoproterenol-induced myocardial infarction models, ECG, and serum marker analysis (LDH, CK-MB). |
127 |
Fig 4: Phytoconstituents from Tinospora cordifolia
7. IN-VITRO MICROPROPAGATION:
In an artificial environment, the propagation of Tinospora cordifolia, which is an essential herbal plant, has been studied on a large scale to develop well-organized micropropagation protocols. Researchers have employed mature nodal explants, which were cultured using Murashige and Skoog medium128. The more advanced micropropagation techniques enabled optimized hormonal concentrations and culture conditions, which increased shoot multiplication and rooting efficiency. The importance of an appropriate auxin and cytokinin balance in the culture medium was emphasized in another study to achieve optimal growth and development129. In addition, further examinations have been conducted to explore the effect of various plant proliferates on in vitro regeneration of Tinospora cordifolia. Further investigations revealed the influence of various hormones on regeneration, identifying the favourable culture medium conditions that promote better growth and development of explants130. Tinospora cordifolia stem cuttings demonstrated a significant increase in rooting efficiency when compared to both lower and higher concentrations, as well as untreated controls, with the application of 100 parts per million (ppm) of Indole-3-butyric acid (IBA). This discovery explains a dependable approach for clonal multiplication using in vitro vegetative propagation methods, which are important for the plant's rapid and effective culture131. An in vitro propagation procedure has been developed that produces optimum roots and high-frequency multiple shoot production, both playing an important role in mass propagation. This study also includes an investigation of the berberine content of regenerated tissues, which indicates that the procedure encourages proliferation and satisfies the species' phytochemical requirements132. Effective shoot and root development was made feasible by the use of Murashige-Skoog medium, which enhances plant hormones133. When vermicompost and cow dung were applied for the in vitro study of Tinospora cordifolia, they provided a beneficial environment for its growth, demonstrating the ideal growth conditions that can be used for mass production of this herbal plant134.
9.Molecular Analysis:
The molecular analysis of Tinospora cordifolia has increased our understanding of genetic diversity, species authentication, and phylogenetic relationships, which are crucial for its conservation and therapeutic utilizations. Recent studies have employed various molecular markers, including genomic SSRs (g-SSRs), to examine genetic variation among different accessions of Tinospora cordifolia and other species belonging to the Menispermaceae family. For example, novel g-SSR markers have been developed and utilized to distinguish Tinospora cordifolia, revealing substantial genetic diversity135. RNA sequencing-derived SSRs have been used to analyse genetic diversity structure among Tinospora cordifolia accessions from various geographical regions in India, highlighting a high level of genetic variation136. High-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry was used for the examination of the bioactive components of Tinospora cordifolia. This method explains the plant's medicinal uses by enabling efficient phytochemical measurement and quality evaluation137. The phytochemistry of Tinospora cordifolia was examined using highly developed liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry techniques, which focused on the plant's medicinal qualities and variations in phytoconstituents. This sheds light on the molecular foundations of the plant138. Various phytochemicals with possible antibacterial qualities were found during preliminary screening of leaf, stem, and root extracts, indicating their potential use in the discovery of novel medications for infectious disorders139. Spectrum data analysis determined the stereostructures of novel compounds by isolating its stem bark140. Through ancient and scientific perspectives, an analysis of Tinospora cordifolia's neuroprotective and immunomodulatory activities was carried out, emphasizing its medicinal value141. The dichloromethane fraction of Tinospora cordifolia was found to be a strong anti-proliferative agent against cervical cancer (HeLa) cell lines, highlighting the necessity of further molecular investigations to determine the active principles of Tinospora cordifolia142. (Table-2).
10. Gap Areas and Future Aspects:
There is a growing need for comprehensive studies at the genetic level to better understand the antioxidative properties of Tinospora cordifolia. Such investigations could aid in developing improved agricultural practices, thereby enhancing its application and therapeutic value153. Although the antioxidant potential of Tinospora cordifolia has been recognized within traditional medicine frameworks, further research is essential to validate its pharmacodynamic targets. This step would facilitate a more seamless integration into conventional medical treatments154. Additionally, while the antioxidative effects of Tinospora cordifolia are well-documented, its metabolomic profiling remains underexplored. Advanced analytical methods focusing on metabolomics could provide deeper insights into its mechanisms and broaden its application scopeΉ⁵⁵. Bridging the traditional uses of this plant with modern pharmacology presents an exciting avenue for novel drug formulations. Continued exploration of its mechanistic pathways may lead to the development of innovative therapies for ailments related to oxidative stress156. Furthermore, future research could delve into its neuroprotective and neurotherapeutic applications, given that it has demonstrated efficacy in mitigating oxidative stress-induced neuronal damage. Such studies would expand the therapeutic potential of Tinospora cordifolia and contribute to the growing field of natural neurotherapeutics157.
Table. 2. Molecular analysis of Tinospora cordifolia using different Markers
|
Marker Used |
Work Done |
Detailed References |
|
Identification and authentication |
143 |
|
|
RAPD |
Genetic diversity analysis |
144 |
|
SSR |
Polymorphism analysis |
145 |
|
matK (Maturase K) |
Analysis of chloroplast DNA |
146 |
|
nrDNA (Nuclear Ribosomal DNA) |
Genomic Characteristic and evolutionary studies |
147 |
|
ISSR (Inter-Simple Sequence Repeats) |
Genotype analysis |
148 |
|
cpDNA (Chloroplast DNA) |
Genomic analysis and phylogenetic pattern |
149 |
|
AFLP (Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism) |
Polymorphism of genome |
150 |
|
SNP (Single Nucleotide Polymorphism) |
Identification. |
151 |
|
qPCR (Quantitative PCR) |
Gene expression analysis |
152 |
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Received on 05.08.2025 Revised on 20.09.2025 Accepted on 25.10.2025 Published on 31.01.2026 Available online from February 07, 2026 Res. J. Pharmacognosy and Phytochem. 2026; 18(1):68-78. DOI: 10.52711/0975-4385.2026.00011 ©A&V Publications All right reserved
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